The Othered Teacher

There is a singular bench on the lower ground of the Norton Simon Museum. In front of it, divided by a window, is a stone buddha altarpiece living in a garden inaccessible to the public. When I visited this museum, I stood at the end of the corridor and watched a man sit, legs crossed on this bench and meditate in front of the buddha as it stared down its follower. As I continued to watch him, I became intrigued, forgetting where I was, and without a sound, the man left without a trace.

The bench may be simple, but it exemplifies the quiet telos of Buddhism. It is a perdurable religion that prioritizes purifying the mind and soul by embedding ritual. Bernard Faure reiterates that only true followers of Buddhism understand this premise. Contrarily, Western followers of Buddhism have othered and reduced ritualism as an antediluvian practice to which they have aestheticized. To them, Buddhism is seen as a religion that rebels by rejecting the modern dogma. Bernard Faure quotes Catholic monk Thomas Merton, positioning Buddhism beyond a theological or philosophical ‘ism’; “it insists on not being a system.” This is the paradoxical nature of Buddhism; it cannot be systematized because it is an omnipresent manifestation. Teachings, stories, and more notably, visual representations of Buddha share such ubiquitous nature; Buddhism holds no absolute form. In agreement with Faure, Buddhism is an empiric religion of interiority, propelled by beliefs, origins and teachings that act as a vehicle to enlightenment. Any practitioner of Buddhism understands that is not a compromise of lifestyle but rather a commitment that manifests in everyday life. And that is why the bench downstairs exists.

Aside from the bench, there are obvious representations of Buddhism, like the ‘Buddha Shakyamuni and Adorants on Mount Meru’ from Kashmir, India at the Norton Simon Museum. As described on the note, it is ‘a masterpiece of Indian metal sculpture’ and it is categorized as an altarpiece. The anthropomorphic buddha, made of bronze with silver and copper inlay, sits in the meditation posture on a thick cushion covered with lavish carpets.[1] One can infer that the patterns of the cushion are the Chakra symbol, further accentuating a trademark as a part of his iconography. Beneath him is a rocky formation divided into three realms: animal, human and celestial - from bottom to top.[2] Given the meditative position of this sculpture, it is evident that Buddhism is a ritualistic religion, yet the argument is larger than this.

The Buddha's form has often been contested by scholars, between teacher or deity, and some have even gone as far as prohibiting anthropomorphic images of the Buddha. This schism leads to ambiguity of how to identify and address the Buddha. Faure noted that the Buddha is often depicted as a ‘freethinker’. Whoever created this sculptor must have shared the same sentiment and decided to conceive a humanly portrait of him. This kind of thinking denotes the possibility of the Buddha as a deity but rather a scholar. Additionally, this Buddha represents him acting humanly by meditating. This position emboldens the importance of ritual in Buddhism because it is a visual representation of the values of a Buddhist follower and their worship. Created artistically, this buddha also exudes religious integrities of the religion, like the fact that his meditative pose is a part of the thirty-two signs indicating his perfection. This vision alone reminds followers that if the Buddha performs rituals, then they too must study, learn and practice much like their teacher.

There are thirty-one other markers of the Buddha's perfection displayed on this version of the Buddha Shakyamuni. His urna (the symbolized third eye) and ushnisha (protuberance from the head) and elongated earlobes are present. The only exception is the Buddha's halo, which is typically used to signify a holy figure.[3] No halo further shapes the Buddha as a teacher rather than a deity, therefore humanly and relatable. Nevertheless, they are mandatory features of the Buddha. In fact, they are iconographic and reinforce his position as an integral figure of the religion. However, I believe that it is these same symbols, which depict the Buddha as a ‘freethinker’, that have attracted groups to interpret the religion as a phenomenon. As Faure notes, Western followers of Buddhism have adopted a Protestant criticism of ritualism to justify their reasoning of following Buddhism.[4] In the process of doing that, they venerate Buddhist relics, much like the Buddha Shakyamuni, to legitimize the religion. By doing this, it excavates the purpose of this sculpture, and further mystifies the features of the Buddha, when in hindsight, it should uplift them to learn extensively about the Buddha and what he truly represents, rather than compensate for their lack of knowledge. Much like the followers who ‘recite Japanese prayers without understanding a word’, they martyrize the Buddha as the one who denied the need for a religious maxim and sadly bastardize the iconographic visage of the religious teacher to appease their renegade rhetoric.[5]

As well as this misinterpreted image, Western followers, as Faure writes, their criticism of ritualism stems from their dislike of Catholic ritualistic practices. If we consider the Buddha as a teacher, then it is no surprise that Christian followers have unintentionally deified him the same way chameleonic holy figures, like Jesus (‘the carpenter’, and the ‘Son of God’), in religious scripture and belief. The argument becomes layered when the Buddha, one who is meant to relate to their followers, is supposedly ‘idolized’, much like the other holy figures that Protestants refused to lionize too. This aniconic rhetoric, as well as the mystification of the Buddha, rewrites him as a ‘superstition’, not an ‘original’ freethinking figure.[6] Considering this, one must focus on the form of the Buddha, particularly how his anthropomorphic form conflicts with this dichotomy. Apart from his meditative pose, the Buddha's hands have historically illustrated the iconographic elements of the Buddha and what he represents. In this sculpture, one hand is placed on his knee, and the other rests in the gap of his crossed legs, soles facing upwards. The former represents him touching the earth, and the latter depicts contemplation.[7] Both these mudras showcase humanity and further illustrate the idea of the Buddha as a teacher, not a deity.

To followers who understand the significance of ritual, majority Asian followers, have understood the weight of these hand gestures. Platonically speaking, Buddhism shares ideals of the forms beyond reach and teaches followers to couple the human form and soul to attain a balanced perfect self, and therefore enlightenment. These mudras of the Buddha Shakyamuni are a language of the soul, between Buddha and follower, expressing and channelling the body’s energy and intentions. Through their outer and inner symbolism, they communicate both to the follower who performs them and to the observer, aspects of the enlightened mind. As Faure exhibits, Buddhism is a form of ritual for Asian followers, and its rituals are apotropaic, or even magical (catalytic to success and an abundance of benefits).[8] One would think, this abstract kind of meritocracy would move Western followers, who count on the clergy to protect them from all evil and guarantee them happiness in this world and next. But it only relies on their inability to understand the language of the Buddha, which in hindsight, is written in plain English to those willing to decode its tongue without a pious handbook to legitimize their ideals.

This version of the Buddha Shakyamuni, made around c. 700, adopts a Mathura kind of style. However, unlike other statues that emerged from there, this kind is made of bronze, with silver and copper. The materiality of this piece cements its form as art, and its craftsmanship and technique make them remarkable regardless of belief. Bronze is a material prided for its strength and aesthetic appeal, but it was also seen as valuable, a belief that trickled down from the Bronze Age. This reason alone proves bronze a testament to tradition, as well as a durable material that should be championed for its ability to ornament itself intricately. This is evident once analyzing the scarring ornamentation of the Buddha’s lightweight sheer shawl draped over one shoulder down to his body, also typical of Mathura design.[9]

Bronze serves as a vessel for spiritual expression, grounding practitioners in the rich history of Buddhist teachings. The choice of this material is deliberate, and has meaningfully intertwined symbolism, tradition and most importantly, cultural reverence. Despite it being small (33.7 x 24.1 x 12.1 cm), it is poignant in capturing these notions. Perhaps this trifecta of reasons highlights what Westerners fail to comprehend about Buddhism. They complete and strengthen its value. Therefore, believers who study the religious Buddhist customs which uphold the value of Buddhism, find it impossible to decompartmentalize and reconstruct the religion to their own advantage. Buddhist philosophy, metaphysics, myth and ritual form an organic whole.[10] These components, hand in hand, complete the portrait of Buddhism and any adjustment distorts its entire purpose. Those who distort the reality of Buddhism with obstinance possess a half empty glass perspective of the religion.

As ambivalent as this analogy appears, one must remember that art cannot be interpreted in this manner because our own cultural assumptions and worldviews influence our interpretations, further shaped by cultural bias.[11] This is why Western followers, particularly Protestants, find it difficult to comprehend the Buddha as a teacher who can transcend but not be equivalent to a divine power who is more likely to possess such novelty. If they were to analyze this Buddha Shakyamuni, then perhaps they would have learnt the historical life of the Buddha through the statues' employment of narrative art. Underneath the bronze Buddha’s cushion is a rocky pedestal that has been divided between animal, human and celestial. This scene may intend to represent the Buddha as a transcendental figure seated on the cosmic mountain Meru, which is also considered to be the centre of the universe.[12] Not only is this narrative powerful but it also centralizes the Buddha as a focal point in the religion; he becomes non-negotiable, and every mantra revolves around him. The trinity of figures fuse Buddhism and early Vedist beliefs, depicting spiritual reincarnation as well as cosmic and social hierarchy. These scenes, their detail cemented by the hardness of the bronze material, represent a certain dharma that is necessary as a Buddhist follower.

Notably, the figures in this piece are labelled as ‘Adorants’ of the Buddha.[13] They are examples of the earliest followers, back in a time without extreme criticism of the religion. More importantly, they also negate the conception of Buddhism as an individualistic religion. Animals, humans and celestial beings are uniting to worship and uplift the Buddha. They are indeed working together to achieve enlightenment as an unusual composite. Faure underlines the fact that individualized character of Buddhism is often emphasized, particularly in reason with meditation as a solitary activity and therefore too internal to be considered a collectivized act.[14] Despite this, Buddhism has a communal aspect: the sangha. It is often considered a third refuge for followers alongside the Dharma and the Buddha; emphasis on alongside. It is not designed to be opted out of. This concept of the sangha is displayed by the figures that make up the pedestal of the Buddha. It is fair to note that it is unsure if the Buddha meant to impose the idea of the community or if it became a solution for the fallible bending of the forms of Buddhism again. This narrative art showcases however that Buddhism may be individualized, hence the individual groups of animals, humans and celestial beings, but it is socially determined.[15] Thus, this narrative art functions as a didactic message of the Buddha’s history and further augments his role as the enlightened one.

The composition of this altarpiece is complete and encapsulates a full story. It embeds a lore so historical that it becomes spiritually out of reach unless attained. It is no longer tangible. Consequently, that is why the religion thrives among the West because it has been reduced to an intangible experience. Perhaps the title ‘Buddha’ has been misinterpreted, embodying mysterious etymology. Victor Segalen suggested calling him by his first name ‘Siddharta’; the man who attained his goal. Yet this fails to humanize him as much as the sculptural piece does. Ultimately, Bernard Faure echos Saïdian ideals on Western rejection of Buddhism as practical and distinguishes that this denial is a way to assert a ‘spiritual’ nature of Buddhism. According to the West, that is the only way Buddhism can exist; to be contrasted against themselves to package it as an experimental heterodoxy compared to Western religion. It is an Orientalist ideology that has existed even before Edward Said. As well as this, Buddhism becomes the religion that Westerners can rely on being heretical; a haven upheld by their superstition. But let it be clear that Faure does not believe that this cohort of heretics will dismantle the foundations of Buddhism. The Buddha Shakyamuni still stands in the Norton Museum, enclosed in glass solely for the visual eye. Yet this barrier feels non-existent as the presence of the Buddha is all encompassing. No matter where it is placed, the Buddha obscures reality; any onlooker is susceptible to his gaze. The Buddha Shakyamuni looks directly at the viewer and bears a smirk on its face. It is an ultimate expression of commonality. In fact, it is possible to imagine the meditating man on the bench again, smiling, while the Buddha smiles back, immortalized, watching his student hone the craft he perfected so many centuries ago.

References

Faure, Bernard. "Buddhism Is Above All a Spirituality." In Unmasking Buddhism. West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.

Lee, D. D., and D. Hutton. The History of Asian Art: A Global View: Prehistory to the Present. Thames & Hudson Ltd, 2023.

Norton Simon Museum. "F.1972.48.2.S." Accessed January 20, 2025. https://www.nortonsimon.org/art/detail/F.1972.48.2.S/.

[1] Norton Simon Museum. "F.1972.48.2.S." Accessed January 20, 2025. https://www.nortonsimon.org/art/detail/F.1972.48.2.S/.

[2] Norton Simon Museum. "F.1972.48.2.S." Accessed January 20, 2025. https://www.nortonsimon.org/art/detail/F.1972.48.2.S/.

[3] Lee, D. D., and D. Hutton. The History of Asian Art: A Global View: Prehistory to the Present, 68. Thames & Hudson Ltd, 2023.

[4] Faure, Bernard. “Buddhism Is Above All a Spiritually.” In Unmasking Buddhism, 68. West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009

[5] Faure, Bernard. "Buddhism Is Above All a Spirituality." In Unmasking Buddhism, 67. West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.

[6] Faure, Bernard. “Buddhism Is Above All a Spiritually.” In Unmasking Buddhism, 67. West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009

[7] Lee, D. D., and D. Hutton. The History of Asian Art: A Global View: Prehistory to the Present, 68. Thames & Hudson Ltd, 2023.

[8] Faure, Bernard. “Buddhism Is Above All a Spiritually.” In Unmasking Buddhism, 66. West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009

[9] Lee, D. D., and D. Hutton. The History of Asian Art: A Global View: Prehistory to the Present, 66. Thames & Hudson Ltd, 2023.

[10] Faure, Bernard. “Buddhism Is Above All a Spiritually.” In Unmasking Buddhism, 68. West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009

[11] Lee, D. D., and D. Hutton. The History of Asian Art: A Global View: Prehistory to the Present, 67. Thames & Hudson Ltd, 2023.

[12] Norton Simon Museum. "F.1972.48.2.S." Accessed January 20, 2025. https://www.nortonsimon.org/art/detail/F.1972.48.2.S/.

[13] Norton Simon Museum. "F.1972.48.2.S." Accessed January 20, 2025. https://www.nortonsimon.org/art/detail/F.1972.48.2.S/.

[14] Faure, Bernard. “Buddhism Is Above All a Spiritually.” In Unmasking Buddhism, 69. West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009

[15] Faure, Bernard. “Buddhism Is Above All a Spiritually.” In Unmasking Buddhism, 69. West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009